Aristotle’s Criticism

Introduction

Aristotle is Plato’s disciple.  He is also known as the tutor of Alexander the Great.  He has written many critical treatises but only two, “Poetics” and “Rhetoric”, are remaining.  “Poetics” deals with the art of poetry and “Rhetoric” deals with the art of speaking.  “Poetics” is a short book for about 50 pages, containing 26 small chapters.  The first four chapters and the 25^th talk about poetry, the 5^th is about comedy, epic and tragedy and the following 14 chapters to tragedy and the next three to poetic diction, the next two to epic and the last to a comparison of epic and tragedy.

His Observation of Poetry

Its Nature – Aristotle, like Plato, calls a poet an imitator.  He compares a poet with a child, who imitates the elders, similarly a poet is a grown up child.  It is not twice removed from reality; instead, it talks about the permanent truth.  He compares poetry with history.  History says what has happened, poetry is more philosophical and it says what may happen.  Poetry is therefore higher than history.

Its Function – poetry’s major function is pleasure.  It gives pleasure to the reader and the poet by its imitation and rhythm.  If the poem teaches along with giving pleasure it is a superior poem.

Its Emotional Appeal – Poetry appeals more to emotions.  Tragedy arouses the emotions of pity and fear – pity at the sufferings and fall of the hero and fear of the worst that he may face.  These emotions end in purgation or catharsis.  These emotions help the mind to calm down.

Observation on Tragedy

Its Origin – Poetry imitates two kinds of action: the noble and the bad.  Noble or good action leads to epic and the bad action leads to satire.  From these actions, arise tragedy and comedy.  Epic and tragedy are superior to satire and comedy.  Tragedy is more superior to epic.

Its Characteristics – Tragedy, according to Aristotle, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete,…in language embellished…in the form of action and not narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.  It should have a beginning, middle and an end.  A plot should have reasonable length.  It should neither be short nor be long.  A tragedy must have rhythm, harmony and song.  They must be employed as occasion demands.  A tragedy must also have action, which distinguishes it from epic.  In epic, a narrator tells the story and in tragedy, the tale is told by moving characters.

Its Constituent Parts – Tragedy has six parts: plot, character, thought, diction, song and spectacle.  Plot is the arrangement of incidents.  It is very important in a tragedy than characters.  Without action, there would not be any characters.  Characters determine men’s qualities.  Thought is what a character thinks or feels during his career in the play.  To accomplish all these, a writer uses diction and song.  Spectacle is the stage mechanics that present the play for the audience.

Structure of the Plot – the plot is the soul of a tragedy.  It must have three unities.  Unity of action is the first unity.  Actions in the life of the hero which are connected with one another and appear together.  There may be more actions in every man’s life but a tragedy must give what is necessary.  There should be only one plot or only one man’s life must be discussed.  Unity of time comes next.  A tragedy must take place within a single revolution of sun and epic does not have this limit.  A tragedy, on stage, must happen within 24 hours, if not it may appear unnatural.  Unity of place is the last unity.  A tragedy must happen in a single place.  A writer should not shift place quite often.  A tragedy should arouse pity and fear and there must be purgation at the end.  A tragedy should end in an unhappy way, so that we get the true tragic pleasure.  A plot can be divided into two – complications and denouement.  The complications are the events that form a knot and the denouement unties it.  The complications include the beginning to the point where there is a turn for good or ill; the denouement extends from the turning point to the end.

Simple and Complex Plot – In a simple plot there is no complications.  In a complex plot there is peripeteia and anagnorsis.  Peripeteia is reversal of situation and anagnorsis is recognition or discovery.  Reversal of situation means reversal of intention – we do something and the opposite happens (killing and enemy and find him to be a friend).  Anagnorsis is a change from ignorance to knowledge.  A tragedy must not have a simple plot but it should have a complex plot.

Tragic Hero – a tragic hero must produce fear and pity among the audience.  He cannot be a good man neither a bad man.  He should be a man whose is not too good but with some errors or tragic flaw.

Observations on Comedy

Not much is said about comedy.  Comedy has its roots in satire.  Satire ridicules personalities and comedy ridicules general vices.  By vices, Aristotle does not mean men with wickedness but with some defect or ugliness.  This defect or ugliness provides laughter, which leads to no harm or pain.  Comedy is more like poetry, which talks about what may happen.

Observations on Epic

Its Nature and Form – Epic originated earlier than tragedy and comedy.  It is an outcome of hymns and songs sung in praise of gods.  In its nature, it is more like tragedy but in form it is different.  An epic should also a beginning, middle and an end.  The structure of the plot is also the same, it must have a complication and denouement.  It has the unity of action that should lead to catharsis.  It has parts like tragedy – plot, character, thought and diction.  It is different from tragedy because a poet narrates it.  It could be lengthier than a tragedy.  An epic could be grand and it could be episodic.  An epic can be marvelous or improbable.  It can have supernatural elements.

Epic and Tragedy – Aristotle considers tragedy as higher than epic.  Epic is superior because it appeals to refined audience.  It achieves its effects without the visual effect.  But tragedy is more superior because it appeals to the cultivated audience by bringing in action.

Observations on Style

Aristotle talks about style in his “Rhetoric”.  A good writing should have clearness and propriety.  The aim of writing is to communicate so the writer must be clear.  But as the meanings to be conveyed are different from time to time the mode of writing or propriety must be different.  The writers must use current words to attain dignity and charm.  He should also use archaic words, foreign words and newly coined words.  He is free to use metaphors.  A prose writer should avoid ambiguous punctuations and multiple clauses.  There are two styles of prose writing – loose and periodic.  Loose style is made up of series of sentences.  In periodic style each sentence is a complete whole with a beginning, middle and an end.  Loose style is formless and unintelligible.  Periodic style has a form.

Plato’s Criticism

Introduction

Plato is a disciple of Socrates.  When he started his career, literature declined and philosophy and oratory were on demand, so Plato discussed much of philosophy and less of literature and its value in society.  He is not  a professional critic.  His philosophical thoughts are discussed in his famous work “Dialogues”.  This book is in the form of dialogues between Aristotle and his disciples including Plato.

His View of Art

            Literature is an art like painting and sculpture.  Art, according to Plato, is an idea.  Ideas are the ultimate reality.  Things are made as ideas before they take a form or shape.  A tree is an imitation of an image in idea, so a tree is a copy.  Art reproduces this first copy, so it is twice removed from reality.  The things are imperfect copies and art is more imperfect.  So art takes men far away from reality and this is dangerous.

His Attack of Poetry

            Plato attacks poetry and poets for the following reasons:

1.      Poetry is twice removed from reality and it makes men believe in the imperfection.

2.      The poet writes a poem not because not because he thought for a long time but because he is inspired suddenly.  This suddenness cannot be truthful.  Poetry contains profound truth but poetry fails in the test of reason.  It cannot take the place philosophy and it cannot make better citizen.

3.      Poetry affects the emotions and not the reason.  It appeals to the heart and not to the intellect.  Emotions are temporary and they cannot be safe guides to men.

4.      Poetry is non-moral in character.  It treats both virtue and vice alike.  It does not teach moral to the readers.  It corrupts human beings.

Function of Poetry

            Poetry is not just to offer pleasure.  It should teach some morals.  It should contribute to the knowledge.  A poet should also be good teacher.

His Comments on Drama

            Drama, according to Plato, is a branch of poetry.  Drama is different from poetry in the following ways:

1.      Drama is to be staged.  It approval and disapproval depends upon the audience.  To convince the audience dramatists use some cheap techniques like quarrels, lamentations, thunder and sounds of animals.  These techniques are a shame in our normal life.  Such plays should be censored.

2.      Audience while watching characters who are cowards, knaves and criminals tend to become one such character.  They lose their individuality.  Such characters must not be there in a play.  A play should have good characters.

3.      Plato is against the pleasure a tragedy and comedy gives.  Tragedy offers pleasure to the audience.  Human beings are full of feelings like anger, fear, grief, etc., when they are in excess there is pleasure.  In comedy, people laugh when a coward act like a brave man or when a criminal acts like an honest man.  These characters are not to be laughed at but they should be pitied.  A comic character must be lovable.

His Observations on Style

            Plato lived in the age of oratory.  He gives rules for the spoken language which could also be applied for the written word.  A speaker must be thorough in the knowledge.  He must be sure of what he has to say.  It must impress the hearers.  Next a speaker must be naturally gifted and he must be constantly in practice.  His speech must follow a natural sequence.  Finally a speaker must know the psychology of his audience.

Conclusion

            Plato condemns poets.  He distinguishes poetry with life.  He is highly moralistic and he believes in art for life sake.  His observations of tragedy and comedy are important contributions.  He is the first to see art as an imitation.